Science and Technology Statistics in Jordan:

Present Status and Future Prospects

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Dr. Jaber Mohammed Al-Bdour

Dr. Mohammed Issa Shahateet

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

A Paper submitted to:

International Workshop on S&T Statistics and Policy Making

Pakistan Council for Science and Technology

Islamabad, 5-7 May 2009

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Amman, Jordan, April, 2009

 Science and Technology Statistics in Jordan: Present Status and Future Prospects

 

Jaber M. Bdour[1] and Mohammed I. Shahateet[2]

 

ABSTRACT

 

This study provides a rapid analytical assessment of S&T statistics situation and prospects with the aim of identifying already existing strategies, gaps and providing recommendations pertaining to policy making in Jordan using S&T data.

 

 

The study is divided into five parts. First, it introduces a brief background on S&T statistics in Jordan. Second, it gives a brief overview of the Jordanian economy. Third, it highlights the governments concern with science, technology, and innovation institutions in Jordan. Fourth, the study introduces the financial resources devoted to S&T and R&D. Fifth, the study highlights the linkages between S&T institutions and industry. Sixth, it gives the type of data collected in the S&T surveys. Finally, conclusions and recommendations introduced at the last part of this paper.

 

Keywords: Statistics of science and technology; policy making; Jordan

 

 

1.      Background on S&T Statistics in Jordan

 

Jordan started its concern with S&T statistics in 1964. The public sector's role remained supporting and concentrating on the development and the growth in numbers of scientific laboratories in various scientific public and private activities, universities, hospitals, applied research centres, and consulting companies, as well as technical training.

 

In February, 1978, a S&T conference conducted in Jordan, and as a result to this conference, a comprehensive survey for S&T capabilities in Jordan was carried out. The purpose of this survey was to create a database for S&T capabilities in Jordan on the one hand, and to use the results of the survey in the national plans on the other.

The five-year national plan of 1981-1986 used the data collected in the previous mentioned survey in the predictions for the period 1981 to 1986. This plan focused on the development of scientific labs in all public universities, and in the Royal Scientific Society (which is the only scientific research centre). It recommended the conducting of surveys on various areas in the country and to widen the activities to be covered in these surveys from agricultural to industrial and services activities. It also aimed at the creation of specialized units in the various activities. The prime goal of these units is to collect and document data and information related to any technological and scientific activities. It was also planned to coordinate these units' activities to achieve this planned prime goal. Accordingly, the Higher Council for Science and Technology (HCST) real role up to now has been to create a database on S&T, and to conduct and encourage researches in the manufacturing, technology, and scientific activities.

 

The comprehensive survey found out that the number of scientists working in the S&T areas increased from 1400 to 2800 in 1980, and the public expenditures on S&T amounted to JD 30 Million in 1979, or about 18% of GDP (GDP amounted to JD 560 Million in 1979), of which 26% on R&D.

Also, public investment in S&T and statistics decreased from about 0.8% of total investment during the period 1976-1980 to about 0.2% of planned total public investment during the period 1981-1985, (The Five Year Plan in Jordan, 1981-1985, P. 56). However, the type of data collected by the survey is listed in part (6) of this paper.

 

It seems that the prime goal of public plans in Jordan, which was the creating a data base on S&T statistics, has not achieved. On the contrary, the concern with statistics and information on S&T has relatively decreased if compared with other countries. The General Department of Statistics conducted and widened various annual surveys in the work force, agriculture, services, and manufacturing activities, but there are no surveys on S&T since 1986.

 

2.     Overview of the Jordanian economy

           

On the economic front, the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan is currently facing two fundamental challenges: 1) high unemployment rates and 2) low private sector competitiveness.  Both need to be tackled if Jordan is to achieve the levels of sustainable economic growth needed to reduce poverty and develop a solid middle class.  Currently there are about 50,000 new entrants into the labour force annually and unemployment stands at between 12-14%, (for more details on poverty and unemployment see Table 1). 

Employment creation and poverty reduction will also continue to be equally important challenges for policy makers over the medium term, given the high rate of population growth (about 3% annually), and the rapid expansion of the labour force. With the support of donors and multilateral institutions, the government has moved forward with its Social and Economic Transformation Program (SETP), of which the main objective is to enhance social and economic development in order to improve the quality of life and living standards. The program sets time-bound projects that aim to improve basic social services such as health care, education, water and rural development.  Nevertheless, long-term economic growth is dependent on economic competitiveness where Jordan’s performance to date is mixed.

 

The outlook over the coming years is encouraging with sound macro-economic management and recent structural reforms having laid a solid foundation for growth. A number of crucial challenges remain, however. Reducing dependence on foreign grants (10.2 percent of GDP in 2004), which are still a major component of the balance of payments and a significant source of government revenue, will be important if sustainable growth is to be achieved. The loss of the oil grant from Iraq in 2003 and the drastic reduction of the Saudi oil grant in early 2005 highlights the importance of current efforts to sustain the fiscal position through expanding the domestic revenue base and containing current expenditure.  One of the most important challenges to the Jordanian economy in the medium term is to maintain economic competitiveness despite the planned removal of fuel subsidies due to loss of the oil grant.  However, with all of these difficulties facing the Jordanian economy, per capita income in Jordan reached US$2377 in 2005, and this is not low compared with some oil producing countries. Also, life expectancy in Jordan is high due to the health care introduced by the government, and literacy rate is also high as a result to the continuous efforts of governments to develop school education in the country, (for more details see Tables 1 and 2).

 

Table 1: Some Important Indicators

 

Country

Iran

Jordan

Kazakhstan

Oman

Pakistan

Saudi Arabia

Sudan

Turkey

World

GDP Million US$ (2005)

196343

12861

56088

24284

110732

309778

27699

363300

44384871

GDP Per Capita US$ (2005)

2900

2377

3703

9460

711

12608

764

5001

 

Unemployment Rate % (2008)

12.5

12.9

6.9

15.0

7.4

8.8

18.7

7.9

30.0 (2007)

Inflation Rate % (2008)

28.0

14.9

18.6

12.5

20.8

10.3

16.5

10.2

 

Literacy Rate % (2005)

N.A.

94.6

N.A.

73 (2003)

N.A.

77 (2003)

N.A.

N.A.

 

Life Expectancy Year (2009)

71.1

78.8

67.9

74.2

64.5

76.3

51.4

71.9

66.3

Population Below Poverty Line %

N.A.

15 (1991)

34.6 (1996)

N.A.

28.6 (1993)

N.A.

N.A.

28.3 (1994)

 

External Dept Million US$ (2008)

21770

6597

103600

6120

43230

63200

30480

294300

 

Population (Thousand) (2005)

67700

5411

15146

2567

155772

24573

36233

72636

 

Sources: World Development Indicators, 2006

                The World Fact book, Country Comparisons

 

Table 2: Expenditures on Education

Country

%

Iran Islamic Rep.

5.1 (2006)

Jordan

4.9 (1999)

Kazakhstan

2.3 (2005)

Oman

4.0 (2006)

Pakistan

2.6 (2006)

Saudi Arabia

6.8 (2004)

Sudan

6.0 (1991)

Turkey

4.0 (2004)

 

 

 

3.     Jordan Public Concern With Science and Technology

         

            In common with most developing countries, Jordan has always recognized the role of scientific and technological activities in economic and social development. All Jordanian successive national plans included what can be called as "strategies" and "policies" for the promotion of scientific and technological activities.

 

In making scientific and technological policies, two issues are of major concern. The first issue deals with strengthening the national scientific and technological base while the second considers the utilization of this base. The promotion of R&D, the linkages between S&T institutions and the production sector, and the utilization of financial and human resources can be considered as the basic elements in these issues.

 

Throughout the years, the Ministry of Planning has continuously included, in its plans, strategies and policies for the promotion of S&T as a tool for economic and social development. Furthermore, the Ministry has made modest financial contributions to promote S&T activities and by allocating part of the external technical assistance to support S&T infrastructure in Jordan. The task for providing R&D funds was transferred from the Ministry to the Higher Council for Science and Technology in 1988. To shed light on the degree of government awareness of the role of S&T in economic and social development, it will be useful to review the successive national plans for the economy of Jordan.

 

A.         Three Year Development Plan (1973-1975)

            This plan dealt with many major economic issues including the increased reliance on S&T and the issue of R&D utilization and funding. During this plan, the National Planning Council allocated some JD 350 thousand on annual basis to support the R&D activities at the University of Jordan and the Royal Scientific Society. Furthermore, the Planning Council allocated part of the technical assistance to build the R&D infrastructure at these institutions. Although the plan called for allocating 1% of Jordan's GNP for R&D activities, the actual expenditure during this period did not exceed one seventh of that amount.

 

B.         Five Year Development Plan (1976-1980)

            This plan repeated the previous call for the allocation of 1% of Jordan's GNP for R&D activities. The actual expenditure on R&D by the Ministry of Planning during this period reached some JD 350 thousand per year. The Ministry continued to provide external technical assistant to R&D activities at the University of Jordan, Yarmouk University, and the Royal Scientific Society. Although the actual expenditure on R&D during the plan did not reach the planned level, but was close to 0.2%, R&D activities during this period increased slightly over the previous planning period. This was due to the establishment of Yarmouk University in 1976, the establishment of a research unit at the Phosphate Mining Company, and the gradual growth of R&D activities at the Royal Scientific Society and at few industrial firms.

 

C.        Five Year Plan for Economic and Social Development (1981-1985)

            For the first time, this plan addressed directly the issue of science and technology in a separate chapter implying the awareness of the government of the vital role of S&T in economic and social development. Indeed, the development strategies dealt clearly with science and technology. It called for funding S&T activities with particular emphasis on the establishment of laboratories and support of research which serve development.            The plan also dealt with S&T characteristics and problems, goals, and organizational measures aimed at strengthening the national S&T base and promoting R&D activities by increasing expenditure on S&T to between 3% and 5% of Jordan's GNP. It was suggested that this could be achieved through allocations in the general budget as well as through public and private sector organizations, with the requirement that no less than 30% of such expenditure be marked for R&D.   During this period, the Ministry of Planning continued to provide technical assistance and financial support to the S&T activities on annual basis. Funds ranged between JD 300 thousand and JD 350 thousand per year.

 

To further promote S&T activities in the industrial sector, the Ministry of Industry and Trade included in the Law for the Encouragement of Investment an article that allows tax deductions, for economic projects and approved economic projects, if part of their expenditure is allocated to R&D or training of their workers. Industrial firms, however, had not benefited from this article in an effective way. Expenditure on S&T activities increased in comparison to those during the previous plan. This is due, among other things, to the establishment of Mu'ta University in 1982. In addition, minor R&D activities started increasing at public sector organizations as more industrial firms recognized the role of S&T in increasing production.

 

D.        Five Year Plan for Economic and Social Development (1986-1990)

            The plan called for enhancing and improving the quality of production and reducing production cost. The plan also emphasized the need for mobilizing and supporting R&D efforts and stressed the need for providing funds for R&D that is geared toward solving problems facing Jordan's growing industrial sector. The main organizational measures include:

 

1)         Enacting special legislation to levy a scientific research tax at one fils per consumed litre of petroleum products.

 

2)         Requesting the universities to increase their annual current expenditures on R&D to 5% of their annual budget.

 

3)         Establishing a national body for S&T.

 

Regarding the first measure, the government increased the price of petroleum products by ten fils to fifty fils per litre, depending on the product. However, the allocation of one fils per litre for R&D funding has not taken place. The second measure calling for increasing the direct R&D budget by the universities to 5% of current expenditure was also not carried out. As to the third measure, and in 1987, the government established the Higher Council for Science and Technology (HCST). The responsibilities of this council include the formulation of the national S&T policies, plans, and programs and the provision of financial support to R&D.

 

It should be noted that these plans had not succeeded in creating a proper investment climate that encourages savings and use of local liquidity or foreign investment in industrial projects that can benefit from S&T capabilities in Jordan, since creating a suitable investment climate is, among other things, one of the main policies that usually improve S&T services.

 

 

E.            Planning Within the Economic Adjustment Programs (1988-1998)

            The Gulf Crisis of 1990 had many negative influences on the Jordanian economy. It hindered the country to apply the Economic Adjustment Program that adopted at the end of 1988 because of economic deterioration. It also exerted heavy burdens on the internal economy by the return of seventy thousand Jordanian and Palestinian workers with their families from Kuwait and other Gulf countries. The Crisis also caused a halt to the external financial assistance. However, as economic indicators show, this crisis was, in some cases, beneficial to the economy of Jordan. Information on S&T policies during the period 1991-1992 is, to the best of our knowledge, lacking. The economic adjustment program, negotiated with the International Monetary Fund, IMF, was designed mainly to correct distortions in the economy of Jordan. It concentrated on treating imbalances in the balance of payments and the government budget to achieve monetary and fiscal stability.

Along with the new economic adjustment program for the period 1992-1998, the government has made a development strategy represented by preparing a social and economic five-year plan for the period 1993-1997.

 

F.             Economic and Social Plan (1993-1997)

            This Plan aims at increasing the percentage of expenditure on R&D to GNP from 0.5% to 1.5% by the end of the plan.             The plan is also aiming at increasing the expenditure on S&T as a percentage of GNP from 4% to 7%. More important, the plan aims at increasing the industrial sector contribution in R&D from 8% in 1991 to 12% in 1997.             In this plan, more elaborated policies concerning S&T are set up. These policies include:

 

1)         Formulation of a national basic and applied research plan that determines the capabilities and requirements of S&T as well as R&D projects and their  priorities  according to socioeconomic needs.

 

2)         Encouraging the private sector to utilize the specialized S&T institutions through proper financial and monetary incentives.

 

3)         Adopting proper criteria to technology transfer and adaptation and developing these criteria through adopting and updating appropriate regulations.

4)         Updating the regulations that are related to patents, copyrights, and publications.

 

5)         Developing information systems in both private and public sectors and interconnecting them with international information networks.

 

6)         Increasing the utilization of domestic resources in productive sectors by S&T inputs.

 

 

G.        Recent Developments in S&T Statistics and Policies

            To enhance the role of S&T activities in achieving socioeconomic development objectives a committee representing different institutions was formed and entrusted with a task to arrange for organizing the Jordanian Scientific Weeks. The National Information System is also responsible about facilitating data use. It is a decentralized system involving all public and private institutions producing or gathering information. Information is divided into 17 groups to facilitate use:

• Industry;

• Education and training;

• Geography;

• Political affairs;

• Research, Science and Technology;

• Law and Legislation;

• Natural resources;

• Agriculture;

• Environment;

• Economics and Finance;

• Culture;

• Population and Humans Settlements;

• Health;

• Labor;

• Society and Social Conditions;

• Transportation;

• Tourism and Antiquities

 

The National Information System relies on the Internet for the supply and exchange of information. This information, be it texts, data or photos, is accurate, global, modern and available to all without exception.

 

4.                 Funding  S&T Activities

 

            The most important issue that affects S&T activities in Jordan, and in most developing countries, is the amount of actual expenditure for these activities. Being a developing country, with limited natural and financial resources, Jordan was not able to direct a reasonable fund for S&T activities. As seen above, all successive national economic and social plans advocated that the percentage of expenditure on R&D to GNP should reach at least 1%. Toward the end of the eighties, this ratio reached about 0.3%. While this ratio is low, it is not lower than similar ratios in most developing countries. For instance, R&D expenditure in Islamic countries is also around 0.3% of the GNP. On the other hand, this ratio reached around 2.6% for industrial countries.

 

As Table (3) shows, domestic expenditure on R&D increased from around JD 2.2 million in 1980 to JD 4.8 million in 1985 and reached about JD 10 million in 1990. This expenditure increased dramatically in 1992 to reach about JD 15 million. A large part of this increase is attributed to the establishment of private universities.

 

 

Table 3: Jordan's Expenditures for the Performance of R&D and GNP, 1980-1992

 

(Million Jordanian Dinar)

Year

Expenditures on R&D

GNP

Expenditures on R&D to GNP %

1980

2.24

1184

0.19

1981

2.45

1484

0.16

1982

3.18

1703

0.19

1983

3.86

1815

0.21

1984

4.20

1905

0.22

1985

4.81

1965

0.24

1986

5.59

2097

0.27

1987

5.99

2113

0.28

1988

6.2

2130

0.29

1989

6.73

2206

0.30

1990

10.00

2376

0.42

1991

11.80

2559

0.46

1992

14.91

3159

0.47

Notes:   

1)            GNP figures are taken from: Jordan, Central Bank of Jordan, 1993, Monthly Statistical Bulletin, Vol. 29, No. 5, pp. 6-7.

2)             For R&D expenditure in 1986, see: Daghestani, F.A. and Shahateet, M. (1988c).

3)             For R&D expenditure for the years 1980-1985 and                 1987, see: Daghestani, F.A. (1989), p. 73.

4)             R&D expenditure figures for the years 1988-1992 are estimates.

           

It is estimated that, in 1992, there were more than 400 units involved in S&T activities that include R&D, higher education, and S&T services. With the return of about seventy thousand Jordanian and Palestinian workers from the Arab Gulf states, especially from Kuwait, after the recent Gulf Crisis, and the establishment of many private universities, it is estimated that the number of scientists and engineers involved in S&T activities was between 6000 and 6500, in 1992, after it reached about 4500 in 1986.

 

In 1986, there were 39 industrial firms involved in R&D. Their expenditure on R&D reached JD 315 thousand that consisted of about 5.6% of all R&D expenditure in Jordan, as shown in tables 2 and 3. This ratio, which is the more significant indicator in this respect, is very low in comparison to that for Turkey, 21%; Greece, 22%; Ireland 60%; and Korea 80%. In 1992, and considering the growth in industrial production and number of employees in establishments employing 50 persons or more, it is estimated that the number of industrial firms involved in R&D activities might have reached 55. By simple calculation, domestic expenditure for the performance of S&T, incurred by industrial firms might have reached JD 1.5 million including JD 0.5 million for R&D activities.

 

 

5.                 Linkages between S&T Institutions and Industry

 

            The industrial sector in Jordan, as in most developing countries, faces many problems including the lack of linkages between decision-making and local R&D institutions. The technology and business assistance available to satisfy the wants and needs of these firms may be daunting from the vantage point of the individual firm. With the objective of improving the operations of Jordanian industry and assisting industrial firms in seizing the opportunities in the global economy, the government of Jordan attempted to link S&T activities to this sector. However, as outlined in this paper and despite the continuous efforts by the Higher Council for Science and Technology to bridge this gap of weak links, more work has to be done.

 

While R&D can play an important part in the upgrading of the technical base of many industrial firms, statistics on R&D expenditures by Jordanian industry show that R&D is heavily concentrated in Jordanian universities, research institutions and a few large firms especially those employing 50 persons or more.

 

It is well known that industrial firms in Jordan, and in most countries, are not interested in scientific and technological research for its own sake. Rather, they are driven by their business objectives and are interested in improving their financial stability, reducing their production and operation costs, and increasing their profit. Building on these objectives, what do Jordanian industrial firms need from scientific and technological institutions? Their principal needs can be summarized as follows:

 

1.            Consulting assistance during use of appropriate technologies and well trained scientists and engineers who can implement these technologies.

 

2.         Local demonstrations and success stories to convince them of the economic value of funding R&D activities.

 

3.            Education and awareness programs describing a package of techniques and technologies that they can readily learn and use. This will require the knowledge and experience in all functional areas such as:

            a)            Manufacturing processes

            b)            Manufacturing engineering including quality assurance

            c)            R&D in products and processes

            d)            Marketing, financial, and human resources management

 

4.            Assessment of business environment to set their production and sales strategies.

           

But how can local scientific and technological institutions be more productive in helping Jordanian industry? It is argued that these institutions will tend to be more effective the mores they satisfy five requisite conditions:

 

(1)            Showing enthusiasm for new ideas and being receptive to industrial innovation;

 

(2)            Removing the typically high level of pressure on employees especially those in administration positions;

 

(3)            Allocating a reasonable amount, in their budget, for incentives and rewards. This also implies more freedom to attend industrial workshops and conferences, both nationally and internationally;

 

(4)        Giving researchers more freedom to choose industrial problems and by allowing them to change research direction in co-operation with industrial customers;

 

(5)            Tolerating researchers who do not fit in with the strictness of organizational conformity.

 

In Jordan, there is a diverse and extensive group of scientists, engineers, and organizations who are willing and able to help industrial firms in adopting and using new technology. These include Jordanian universities, Higher Council for Science and Technology, Royal Scientific Society, government laboratories and departments, private consultants, engineering firms, and banks. However, and as mentioned above, much more co-operation is needed to use the services of these sources and eliminate duplication of research programs.

 

 

 

6.                 Structure of S&T Data

 

            The following structure of data related to S&T is followed by Jordan:

 

Distribution of the institutions engaged in scientific and technological activities by category of institution

 

Distribution of scientific and technological units by number of institutions engaged in scientific and technological activities

 

Selected indicators for scientific and technical personnel engaged in R&D on full time basis (FTE) per million populations

 

Distribution of personnel engaged in scientific and technological activities by institution and branch of activity

 

Distribution of personnel engaged in scientific and technological activities by institution and sector of performance

 

Distribution of personnel engaged in scientific and technological activities by institution and level of education

 

Distribution of personnel engaged in scientific and technological activities by institution and field of science and technology

 

Distribution of personnel engaged in R&D by institution and sector of performance

 

Distribution of personnel engaged in R&D by institution and level of education

 

Distribution of personnel engaged in R&D by institution and level of education

 

Distribution of personnel engaged in R&D by institution and field of science and technology

 

Distribution of personnel engaged in scientific and technological services by institution and sector of performance

 

Distribution of personnel engaged in scientific and technological services by institution and level of education

 

Distribution of personnel engaged in scientific and technological services by institution and field of science and technology

 

Distribution of personnel engaged in teaching and training at the third level by institution and sector of performance

 

Distribution of personnel engaged in teaching and training at the third level by institution and level of education

 

Distribution of personnel engaged in teaching and training at the third level by institution and field of science and technology

 

Distribution of personnel engaged in R&D by socio-economic aims and sector of performance

 

Distribution of personnel engaged in scientific and technological services by service and sector of performance 

 

Distribution of personnel engaged in scientific and technological activities by branch of economic activity and sector of performance

 

Distribution of total personal working in the institutions engaged scientific and technological activities by level education and economic activity

 

Distribution of expenditure on S&T activities by all institutions engaged in S&T activities according to type of activity

 

Expenditure on R&D in Jordan by institution and type of research

 

Expenditure on R&D in Jordan by field of science and technology and type of research

 

The best way to finance R&D as suggested by S&T institution engaged in S&T activities by sector of performance

 

Distribution of laboratories by institution and the estimated value of equipment

 

Distribution of scientific and technical workshops by institution and the estimated value of equipment

 

Distribution of units that possess computers, other scientific equipment, and their estimated values by institution

 

Distribution of industrial firms by industrial sub sector

 

Distribution of industrial firms by industrial sub sector and governorate

 

Distribution of capital by industrial sub sector and governorate

 

Distribution of personnel working at industry by industrial sub sector and governorate

 

Distribution of personnel working at industrial firms by level of education and governorate

 

Distribution of industrial firms that financed R&D by industrial sub sector and institutions performing R&D

 

R&D expenditure by industrial firms at institutions performing R&D for these firms and usefulness of R&D results

 

Distribution of utilization to production capacity ratio by industrial sub sector

 

Distribution of industrial firms by industrial sub sector and reasons for not using the total capacity of production

 

Distribution of industrial firms by industrial sub sector and the type of research and studies needed

 

Distribution of computer firms by governorate, number of employees and capital

 

Number of computer firms by governorate and main activity

 

Distribution of specialized personnel in computer firms by field of science and technology and main activity

 

Distribution of personnel in computer firms by level of education and governorate

 

Distribution of engineering consulting firms by legal status and branch of activity 

 

 

 

7.                 Conclusions

 

            The main conclusions concerning statistics and status of S&T can be summarised as follows:

 

1.                  The number of establishments engaged in S&T activities is small.

 

2.                  Scientific and Technological units are scattered throughout Jordan that make them less productive.

 

3.                  The number of those engaged in S&T activities in all establishments is small. This is more obvious in industrial firms.

 

4.                  The percentage of Ph.D. holders to the total number of persons engaged in S&T activities is small. This is also true for Master degree holders.

 

5.                  Social sciences and humanities are predominant on the expense of other fields of science and technology.

 

6.                  The percentage of those engaged in R&D to total population is considerably small in comparison to other countries.

 

7.                  Most research is carried out at the Jordanian universities were it is considered as part of the academic career.

 

8.                  Expenditure on R&D in Jordan is still small. This is one of the weaknesses in the Jordanian R&D policies especially when this expenditure is compared to that allocated for higher education and S&T services.

 

9.                  The participation of the industrial firms, under study, in R&D is very small bearing in mind the size of investment and labour in this important sector.

 

10.              Experimental development efforts are limited. Indeed, more efforts are needed on this activity. Research efforts should be directed from basic research to experimental development. This increases the volume of production and its revenue.

 

11.              Expenditure on R&D activities is biased toward social sciences and humanities on the expense of other fields of science and technology such as agricultural sciences.

 

12.              R&D, material and product testing and quality control activities are regarded as very limited in the industrial sector.

 

13.              Interaction in terms of conducting industrial research and scientific services, between the industrial institutions and the scientific establishments is still limited.

 

 

 

8.                 Recommendations

           

            This study recommends the following:

 

1.         There is a need to complete the national S&T policies including the strategies and priorities of S&T activities.

 

2.            Reviewing the structure of higher education and internal bylaws and regulations such that more emphasis is placed on R&D.

 

3.            Reviewing the Law of Public Share-holding Companies, especially the article regarding the allocation of 1% of net profits for R&D and training. Mechanisms for incentives have to be designed and carried out.

 

4.            Adopting specific mechanisms to improve the quality of S&T graduates to cater for the requirements of the private sector. This could be achieved through partnership with the private sector in formulating policies, defining certain educational programs and sharing expenses.

 

5.            Increasing the allocations for S&T activities in bilateral and multilateral aid and cooperation agreements with countries and organizations.

 

6.         It is recommended that industrial firms be targeted as a crucial part of a national strategy to reduce Jordan's imports of unneeded high and medium technology products. This will require partnership of various stakeholders and could be undertaken under the leadership of the HCST.

 

7.         Local R&D institutions are requested to strengthen and, in many cases, build confidence with industrial firms. They have to prove that they are able of conducting R&D that will increase industrial production and profit margins. This is not to relegate the several efforts being made to limbo.

 

8.         The HCST should not only participate in drawing plans for future scientific and technological activities, but also in taking decisions concerning future investment in, or purchase of, technology, since most problems occur from wrong investment decisions. This may include providing information on proper technology and future demand for new equipment and knowledge. It may also include providing advisory services to help industries in getting technology and solving their problems so that they become more innovative and competitive.

 

9.         It is recommended that the Department of Statistics initiate or undertake a series of in-depth studies and few pilot projects to study the problems facing S&T activities and find solutions to show the economic benefits of these activities. In particular, a national survey of S&T potential in Jordan, followed by scientific analysis and practical policies, is needed. This should be carried out very soon, since the last survey was done in 2003. International organizations recommend that such a survey should be done every 5 years. The results of this survey can be used to update the priorities of S&T activities.

 

10.       More awareness of the role of science and technology in economic development is needed, especially in solving problems facing industries. It is recommended that the government should allocate more funds in its budget, for R&D. In the medium term, this amount can be increased by at least one million per year.

 

11.       It is recommended that the Ministry of Planning maintain an awareness of S&T policies and issues and their impact on industry, and follow up the implementation of policies concerning science and technology issues.

 

12.            Industrial firms are advised to establish alliances with research, educational, consulting, government and other organizations to ease the development and delivery of required technical services and programs.

13.            Indicators showed in Tables 4, 5, and 6 highlight the need for more cooperation and coordination between Islamic countries to achieve better indicators than they are now. Cooperation is needed in the conducting scientific researches and transferring technologies in many areas, especially in atomic energy which Jordan just started its research on this to produce energy, particularly electricity, needed in Jordan.  

14.            Industry and trade associations representing and serving industrial firms in Jordan must coordinate and rationalize their services at the grass roots level. They are recommended to increase their activities relating to upgrading of skills and training of their members. It is hoped that this paper will help in starting a meaningful discussion among various industries, national S&T institutions, and government. It is believed that if these recommendations are carried out, industrial firms will have more growth with less concern.

 

 

Table 4: Population, 2005

                       

Year /2005

Million

% of the world Population

The World Population

6437

100%

The Islamic World Population

937

15%

The Arab World Population

313

4.9%

 

 

 

Table 5: Gross Domestic Products and Per Capita Income

 

Year /2005

Million US$

%

The World Total GDP  ( US $)

44384871

100%

The Islamic Total GDP ( US$)

2320679

5.2%

The Arab World GDP   ( US$)

994677

2.2%

Per Capita Income in the world (US$)

6894

100%

Per Capita Income in the Islamic world (US$)

2477

36%

Per Capita Income in the Arab world (US$)

3177

46%

 

 

Table 6: Imports and Exports, 2008

Million US$

World Total Exports

16280000

100% of Total Exports

Islamic Countries Total Exports

1781373

11% of world Exports

Arab World Total Exports

1053289

6.5% of world Exports

World Total Imports

16210000

100% of Total Imports

Islamic Countries Total Imports

1255981

7.7% of world Imports

Arab World Total Imports

600796

3.7% of World Imports

 

 

 

References

 

Barke, R. (1986). Science, Technology and Public Policy, Congressional Quarterly Inc., Washington, D.C.

Beintema, N. M., Fardous, A. N., and Alrusheidat, J. (2006). Agricultural Science and Technology Indicators: Jordan, Agricultural Science and Technology Indicators Country Brief No. 36. Washington, D.C.: IFPRI and GCSAR.

Cotgrove, S. and Box, S. (1970). Science, Industry and Studies in the Sociology of Science, Gorge Allen & Unwin Ltd., London.

Daghestani, F.A. (1989). Expenditure on R&D in Jordan, Royal Scientific Society, Amman.

Daghestani, F.A. and Altamemi, A.R. (1993). Science and Technology Issues for Development in the Muslim World, Islamic Foundation for Science, Technology and Development, Jeddah.

Daghestani, F.A. and Shahateet, M.I.T. (1988a). Institutions and Units that Carry out Scientific and Technological Activities, Royal Scientific Society, Amman, (in Arabic).

Daghestani, F.A. and Shahateet, M.I.T. (1988b). Scientists, Engineers, and Technicians Working in Scientific and Technological Activities, Royal Scientific Society, Amman, (in Arabic).

Daghestani, F.A. and Shahateet, M.I.T. (1988c). Expenditure on Scientific and Technological Activities, Royal Scientific Society, Amman, (in Arabic).

Daghestani, F.A. and Shahateet, M.I.T. (1988d). Laboratories and Scientific Equipment, Royal Scientific Society, Amman, (in Arabic).

Daghestani, F.A. and Shahateet, M.I.T. (1988e). Some Technological Indicators in Jordanian Industry, Royal Scientific Society, Amman, (in Arabic).

Daghestani, F.A. and Shahateet, M.I.T. (1988f). Some Technological Indicators in Jordanian Electronic computer Firms, Royal Scientific Society, Amman, (in Arabic).

Daghestani, F.A. and Shahateet, M.I.T. (1988g). Some Technological Indicators in Consulting and Engineering Firms, Royal Scientific Society, Amman, (in Arabic).

Daghestani, F.A. et al. (1988). Summary Report on the Scientific and Technological Potential in Jordan in 1986, Royal Scientific Society, Amman. (In Arabic).

Dwiri, M. (1993). Problems Facing Scientific R&D the Finance. A Paper Presented at the First Scientific Jordanian Week, 21-25 August 1993, Amman, (in Arabic).

Elkarmi, F. (1993). An Effective Forum to Integrate S&T into the Development Process, A Paper Presented at a Workshop on Integration of S&T in the Development Planning and Management Process, 27-30 September 1993, Amman.

Elshuraydeh, K. et al. (2003). Science & Technology and Innovation Profile of Jordan, Higher Council for Science and technology, Amman.

ESCWA. (1986). The Acquisition of Imported Technology for Industrial Development: Problems of Strategy and Management in the Arab Region, UN Publication E/ESCWA/NR/85/16.

ESCWA. (1993). The Integration of Science and Technology in the Development Planning and Management Process in the ESCWA Region, UN Publication E/ESCWA/NR/1993/15.

Jordan University of Science and Technology. 2006. Agricultural Centre for Research & Production. http://www.just.edu.jo/centers/acrp.htm (accessed January 2006).

Jordan, Central Bank of Jordan. (1993). Monthly Statistical Bulletin, Vol. 29, No. 5, Amman.

Jordan, Ministry of Planning. (1981). The Five Year Plan for Economic and Social Development 1981-1985, Ministry of Planning, Amman.

Jordan, Ministry of Planning. (1986). The Five Year Plan for Economic and Social Development 1986-1990, Ministry of Planning, Amman.

Jordan, Ministry of Planning. (1993). Economic and Social Plan 1993-1997, Ministry of Planning, (in Arabic).

Jordan, National Planning Council. (1973). Three Year Development Plan 1973-1975, National Planning Council, Amman.

Jordan, National Planning Council. (1976). Five Year Plan for Economic Development 1976-1980, National Planning Council, Amman.

Khatib, H. (1993). Experience of Newly Developed Countries in Applying Science and Technology in Development and the Jordanian Situation, A Paper Presented at the First Scientific Jordanian Week, 21-25 August 1993, Amman, (in Arabic).

Nour, S. S. O. M. (2005). Science and Technology Development Indicators in the Arab Region: A Comparative Study of Gulf and Mediterranean Arab Countries, Discussion Paper #2005-3, United Nations University.

Organisation for Economic Co-Operation and Development. 2002. Frascati manual: Proposed standard practice for surveys on research and experimental development. Paris.

Taimeh, A. and S. Sunna. 1999. The national agricultural research system of Jordan. In The national agricultural research systems in the West Asia and North Africa region, edited by J. Casas, M. Solh, and H. Hafez. Aleppo, Syria: ICARDA, FAO, AARINENA, and CIHEAM.

UNESCO (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization), Division of Statistics on Science and Technology. 1984. Manual for statistics on scientific and technological activities. UNESCO, Paris. Mimeo.

 

 

 


[1] Assistant Professor, Head, Department of Management Information Systems, School of Business, Princess Sumaya University of Technology, Amman, Jordan.

 

[2] Assistant Professor, Department of Management Information Systems, School of Business, Princess Sumaya University of Technology, Amman, Jordan.